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Monographie zugänglich unter
URL: https://epub.sub.uni-hamburg.de/epub/volltexte/campus/2015/40735/
Atmospheric pollution of international maritime transportation : measurement and cost estimation of trade-lane specific container trade activities in Hong Kong
Heinbach, Christoph
| pdf-Format:
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| Dokument 1.pdf (6.701 KB)
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| Zugriffsbeschränkung: |
| nur innerhalb des Universitäts-Campus |
| SWD-Schlagwörter: |
| Hongkong , Luftverschmutzung , Schifffahrt |
| DDC-Sachgruppe: |
| Geowissenschaften |
| Dokumentart: |
| Monographie |
| ISBN: |
| 978-3-8428-2338-9 |
| Sprache: |
| Englisch |
| Erstellungsjahr: |
| 2012 |
| Publikationsdatum: |
| 20.05.2015 |
| Kurzfassung auf Englisch: |
| Introduction 1.1 Approach and Motivation: World transportation overcomes the distance between places of origin and places of demand for both passengers and freight. Almost three quarters of the world’s surface is covered by water and around 80 percent of the world trade by weight is moved in this mode. Offshore trade activities (confined to container trade) describe a synonym that features globalization. In fact, transportation including these activities is the least visible critical element in world economies. But the importance of environment has barely been discussed in the context of pollution performance from individual economies. As a consequence, trade-lane (confined to specific world sea shipping routes between individual ports) emissions, generated by economies, are not precisely reviewed by government agencies. In addition, the real amount and costs of atmospheric pollutions linked to offshore trade-lane performance are not entirely understood by consumers. Environmental awareness seems to be seldom raised in our society. In fact, the ignorance of mankind is the most important factor due to since appropriate information is very little available. Some emissions are contributing to a process of retaining the heat from solar radiation by the planet Earth also referred to as ‘greenhouse effect’. The greenhouse effect, which originally has a positive effect, because it makes the planet Earth warm enough to sustain life, is responsible for the increase of the global temperature which has quite apparent effects on our world. Melting sea ice effects and rising seawater levels are only a few examples. To be precise, freight transportation is responsible for approximately 25 percent of the total global transport emissions, equal to 1.65 billion tonnes of CO2 per year. With increasing global demand in commodities and goods the magnitude of transportation also rises, essentially addressing the consumer’s and industry’s need of delivering shipments with different, sizes, volumes, weight and requirements at the right place, to the right time, in the right quantity and to the right costs. From what has been said earlier it is curious why no generally accepted criterion to allocate international transportation pollution is currently in use. While diffident efforts were made to include these emissions in international conventions, CO2 emissions related to international freight are not involved in the pollution reduction goals of the Kyoto Protocol. In addition, environmental pollution generated by international marine bunkers is not allocated to a single country. Recognizing that atmospheric pollution from offshore activities is a vital aspect of green transportation it is acknowledged that this area is not yet sufficiently researched. So how can this problem solved? Doing nothing would result in a continuation of the build-up of emissions in the atmosphere and even more severe future warming. The maritime industry is still a principal contributor of emissions in a globalised world where massive amounts of cargo are shipped from one economy to another. 2.7 percent of global CO2 emissions are originated by international shipping but the accurate amount of emissions generated by seaborne trade has been inadequately calculated. Some researchers have used advanced methodologies to calculate the amount of emissions caused by international transport and offshore production processes based on prepared data and input-output tables. But since atmospheric pollution is far more complex, a sophisticated method is required to determine data used for calculation. In fact, the quantification, allocation and costs estimations of international transport and offshore emissions have not been considered been satisfactorily for individual economies. 1.2 Objective and Methodology: Objective: The key question tackled by this thesis is: what are the amounts of emissions (confined to all greenhouse gases) and what are the estimated costs for different trade-lanes generated by seaborne container trade for the economy of Hong Kong? Due to global atmospheric pollution, local air quality impacts and effects to public health, the question addressed in this study is of rising interest not only for governmental agencies but also for ship owners and operators, in order to become aware of their environmental performance necessary to cope with pollution in a sustainable and green manner in future. Costs, originated from atmospheric pollution, are of essential significance and the author hopes the monetary estimations made in this report can have an influence on the governments in its policy making strategy and initiation to guide the industry towards more environmental friendly practices. To answer the key question in this study, it is necessary to focus the direct impacts of ocean transportation to the environment. For the first time, a lifecycle approach is considered for emission generation, involving a holistic energy chain of fuel consumed and electricity produced. This has not been regarded in the context of container trade activities. Methodology: In this study, the calculation of the amount of emissions is based on a new approach and data methodology, the web-based online tool ‘EcoTransIT World’. This application is publicly accessible and allows the calculation of energy consumptions and emissions for global transportation according to specific input parameters. By means of compiled input data from the Hong Kong Census Statistics Department EcoTransIT World is applied to Hong Kong container trade activities or more precisely to specific trade-lanes. Container trade is a vital pillar in Hong Kong due to its strategic location at the mouth of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) with great access to the hinterland and its gateway function for the Chinese mainland in addition. It was necessary to request dedicated information by a third party agency because public macroeconomic data has limited availability in terms of the details required (e.g. ports of origin for inward container movements or ports of destination for outward container movements) in order to facilitate a reliable use of the online application model. The data available covers the period between 1999 and 2010 and encompasses selected trade-lanes for both inward and outward activities for container trade activities. As a hub of global importance, Hong Kong shipping activities rely most on container trade. Ultimately, the results are expected to promote a clear understanding of the different trade-lane related emission performances and efficiencies in particular. This will provide useful data for other researchers to conduct more in depth analysis in this regard and stimulate governmental and industrial thinking necessary to successfully set up initiatives mitigating the impacts of emissions generated by international trade activities on sea. Indeed, the author is only aware of this first attempt in measuring accurate emissions, energy consumption and calculating performances for identified container trade-lanes. Besides, the author applies a top-down approach in order to estimate the costs of emissions for the container trade activities specified. While the method used in this writing still faces some unimposing limitations the assumptions in terms of the shipping parameters, allocation and calculation rules as well as environmental data for ocean vessels are deemed to present an explicit frame of maritime trade-lane related emissions. The structure of the Project is as follows: in Section 2, the role of global transportation and its link to worldwide CO2 emissions is discussed. Section 3 describes the context between emissions and costs by transportation and justifies a monetary evaluation approach to estimate the costs of the emissions measured in this writing. In Section 4, the literature on web-based calculation methods of emissions for international shipping activities is reviewed. Section 5 is dedicated to EcoTransIT World. The author designs a holistic framework for the measurement of energy consumption and emissions linked to container shipping by ocean vessels. EcoTransIT World uses key indicators that are identified and are precisely taken into account in order to perform the measurement of emissions according to specified input data available. In Section 6, EcoTransIT World is applied to Hong Kong economy with respect to the total inward and outward container trade. Finally, Section 7 presents the conclusions.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: List of TablesIV List of IllustrationsV AbbreviationsVI 1Introduction7 1.1Approach and Motivation7 1.2Objective and Methodology9 2Shipping and Air Pollution13 2.1Global Transportation and CO2 Emissions13 2.2Effects of Atmospheric Pollution18 2.3Emissions Pathway in Transportation and Shipping23 2.4Regulatory Requirements to Greener Shipping25 3Environmental Costs29 3.1Internalization of External Costs29 3.2Monetary Valuation32 3.3Estimation of Emission Costs in Shipping33 3.3.1Top-down Approach34 3.3.2Bottom-Up Approach36 3.3.3Advanced Top-down Approach38 4Literature Linked to Web-Based Calculation Methods of Emissions for International Shipping Activities40 5Methodology of EcoTransIT World: Measurement of Energy Consumption and Emissions Linked to International Shipping44 5.1Background and Environmental Indicators44 5.2Energy Chain and Basic Calculation Rules47 5.2.1Energy Chain and Upstream Process47 5.2.2Basic Calculation Rules48 5.3Environmental Data for Container Vessels52 5.3.1Marine Emission Factors52 5.3.2Class and trade-lane specific emission factors54 5.3.3Derivation of Individual Vessel Emission Factors55 5.4Data Methodology Assumptions and Sources58 5.4.1Container Vessel Routing59 5.4.2Container Vessel capacities60 5.4.3Main Engines and Auxiliary Engines64 5.4.5Other Assumptions for Calculating Marine Vessel Emission Factors68 5.5Considerations of Reduced Vessel Speed69 5.6Relevant Online Data Input And Generated Output71 5.6.1.Relevant Online Data Input72 5.5.2.Generated Data Output74 5.7.Uncertainties76 6Trade-Lane Specific Energy Consumption, GHG Emissions, Costs Estimation and KPIs of Hong Kong Container Trade Activities79 6.1Hong Kong Role as Container (Transhipment) Hub79 6.2Laden Container Throughput Development80 6.3Input Boundaries and Routing Controversies82 6.3.1Input Boundaries82 6.2.2Routing Controversies82 6.4Results from EcoTransIT World85 6.4.1Trade-Lane Specific Container Factors85 6.4.2Primary Energy Consumption.88 6.4.3Sulphur Oxide and Particulate Matter89 6.4.4Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide Equivalent91 6.5Cost Estimation97 6.6Key Performance Indicators and Comparison of Emission Trade-Lane Data102 6.6.1Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)102 6.6.2Comparison of Emission Trade-Lane Data105 7Conclusions109 References116 APPENDICES Appendix 1Scope of ‘Maersk Line Carbon Footprint Calculator’122 Appendix 2Cumulative weighted average CO2 KPIs per trade-lane123 Appendix 3Emission factors and energy consumption for energy production of liquid fuels124 Appendix 4Container flows per direction and cargo average vessel utilization on the major trade-lanes.125 Appendix 5Samples of emissions factors for marine vessels from EcoTransIT World126 Appendix 6Normalized emissions to g/tkm for container vessels with specific containers carrying volume goods128 Appendix 7Controversial trade-lane routings from EcoTransIT World130 Appendix 8Identified trade-lanes from CS with relevant container volume between 1999 and 2000 and transport distances133 Appendix 9Energy consumption ranking for all trade-lane container activities between 1999 and 2000139 Appendix 10CO2 and CO2e ranking for all trade-lane container activities between 1999 and 2000140 Appendix 11Sulfur dioxide ranking for all trade-lane container activities between 1999 and 2000141 Appendix 13Laden container throughput for identified Hong Kong trade-lanes143 Appendix 14CO2e emission costs including upstream process for specified Hong Kong trade-lanes144 Appendix 15CO2e costs ranking for Hong Kong trade-lanes145 Appendix 16CCWG Trade-Lanes146 Appendix 17Trade-lane CO2 KPI comparison between BSR CCWG and EcoTransIT World147Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.1, Internalization of External Costs: As initially mentioned, transport contributes significantly to economic growth and enables global trade. What becomes more apparent with increasing transport activities, are growing side effects that impact the nature and public life negatively. Taking road traffic as an example, congestions are generated in particular during peak hours within urban areas with high population density. Ships and trains create noise and ocean vessels pollute the air. The effects of transportation are generally referred to as external cost. Examples for external costs are air pollution, congestions, noise, infrastructure and accidents. Economically speaking, external costs are also called ‘externalities’. Loefgren distinguishes between positive and negative externalities. He stresses that a positive externality usually benefits the society, but in such way that the producer cannot fully profit from the gains made (e.g. environmental clean-up and research). Negative externalities are more common and it costs the producer nothing, but is costly to the society in general (e.g. pollution). The ‘Handbook on estimation of external cost in the transport sector’ of the European Commission defines external cost as ‘[…] costs to society and - without policy intervention - they are not taken into account by the transport users’. Internalization is described by McKinnon et al. with the ‘polluter pays principle’ and is essentially regarded as an effective way to limit the negative side effects of transportation. Pigou argued a model to internalize environmental (social) cost in higher taxes. The European Commission has seen the rising need to internalize the social cost most notably. Various research papers have addressed the effort for internalization, such as the Green Book on fair and efficient pricing, the White Paper on efficient use of Infrastructure, the European Transport Policy 2010 and the midterm review of 2006. These papers aim to ensure that all external damages caused by personal or freight movement are fully internalized in the price of transport. Pricing should be fair so that ‘polluters’ are obliged to pay the marginal social cost of their activities, giving them an economic incentive to mitigate and/or limit the negative effects of their transport activities. The latest study of the European Commission in applying the polluter-pays principle to transport is not implemented yet. Some arguments disagree with internalizing of environmental cost from transport. As a matter of fact, McKinnon et al. argued that there is no guarantee that governments will use ‘green’ taxes to finance environmental projects. Ocean transportation occurs on the sea and it is obvious that most consumers in any economy do not perceive the activity much. It is simple for them to condemn seaborne shipping and complain about the pollution due to. Besides, there is no guarantee, that environmental cost will raise the price of transport and logistics activity to provide sufficient motivation to the implementation of mitigation measures. Critical tones also come up due to the uniform application of the principle across a national economy and the validity of the monetary valuations of externalities. Succinctly, internalization is discussed controversially among scientists and is regarded difficult to implement. It is argued that ‘Its effectiveness as a policy measure depends on the way in which it is applied and coordinated with other sustainability measures’. Most notably, monetary valuation of environmental damage must be accurate in order to justify policy-making measures by governmental agencies. Thus, a specific valuation method is required. 3.2, Monetary Valuation: External costs must normally carry a value to make internalization successful. The calculations for external costs with respect to the negative effects of air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, noise, accidents and traffic congestions vary in many different ways. One possibility to estimate environmental cost monetary is to value the damage done to the environment ex post, as introduced by Adamowicz, also known as the so-called Damage Function approach. Another method is to evaluate the costs of avoiding this damage ex ante. Costs of environmental damage can only partly be measured properly. For instance, costs that occur due to a vehicle accident when a car frontally drives against a safety fence are easy to calculate as the loss of material usually carries a certain value and the repairing cost will be added to the losses that incurred while the road cannot be used without a safety fence. In contrast, atmospheric pollution with adverse health effects is much less direct and much more difficult to observe and quantify. McKinnon et al. indicate that the environmental damage approach is often regarded as more appropriate since it helps to reduce the cost of damage in advance. What becomes increasingly important in this matter is to place a value on the external costs that can compensate the effects of air pollution beyond the visible damages. To be precise, the costs for avoiding environmental damage need to be based on the effects of externalities and the damage to the public that are not visible as well, such as health problems caused by air pollution (e.g. asthma) and possible death in consequence. Considering those circumstances, environmental researchers have to address visible and lateral damages in a long-term perspective when developing adequate methods for making monetary evaluations of environmental effects. It is obvious that such damages can rarely been considered entirely in a monetary context due to the scarcity of information and visibility of effects. Since the entire elimination of environmental impacts cannot be reached in practice, the reduction of it is often objected. |
